Case Study :: Eyjafjallajokull

Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland

Iceland is an MEDC (more economically developed country). Its GDP per capita is $42,339 compared with the UK's at $38,920. The island itself lies on a constructive plate boundary where two plates are pulling apart. In this case, the two pates involved are the Atlantic and the Eurasian tectonic plate. At this boundary magma rises up between the plates and cools as it contacts the ocean. Over time this magma layers and builds up in the form of a volcanic island. Iceland itself is thought to be situated over a hotspot (where a stationary plume of magma has risen to the Earth's surface) as like Hawaii. 

Iceland is home to multiple volcanoes and so is used to dealing with eruptions. Fissure eruptions are common and are frequently observed by NASA.

Eruption 2010:

Nature of event::

Eyjafjallajokull (E15) is an ice-covered stratovolcano South-East of Iceland. The last eruption from E15 was in 1821 and so the volume of ash produced was expected. E15 reached a 4 on the VEI because of the amount of ash it produced. It was categorised as a fissure eruption.

Impacts::

Primary

1. As heat generated melted overlying ice, flooding occured forced a 700 person evacuation.

2. Water contaminated with fluoride

3. 500 farmers evacuated

4. roads around the volcano shut

5. People forced to wear goggles and masks because of the ash

6. 10km plume of ash released

Secondary::

1. European flights cancelled because heat of engine turns ash into a glass-like material

2. Trans-Atlantic flights cancelled because fear of engine becoming blocked

3. IATA notes that approx £130 million lost economically for airline companies

4. Hire-car companies whacked prices up (some people paid thousands to get to the Channel Tunnel)

5. Kenyan economy at risk as perishable goods must be transported through Spain to get to the UK instead of been flown as usual

6. Travelers stranded abroad 

7. Channel Tunnel congested

Responses and Management ::

Primary

1. Predictions informed scientists to tell farmers not to let animals drink from outdoor water sources as high levels of fluoride would have contaminated water and would have had deadly effects on cattle.

2.  Icelandic Meteorological Office observes all Iceland's volcanoes and records any warning signs of activity.

3. 24/7 watch put in place at the IMO 

4. Ash was tracked by many countries so they could decide what to do about air traffic in advance

Secondary:

1. Compensation to stranded travelers
2. New regulations for volcanic ash in terms of flying aircraft.
3. FutureVolc project set up in 2012 to integrate European volcano monitoring. Iceland is therefore a laboratory 'supersite' because of its array of volcanic sites.

pictures sourced from ::

www.nathazmap.com

www.theguardian.com

www.bbc.co.uk

Urban Centre Redevelopment

Urban decline ::

Decline of an urban centre is influenced by many factors. City councils are often determined to attract new industry and inward investment and may even offer greenfield sites for development. Planning policies can encourage urban expansion and provide development 'out of town'. Companies find peripheral locations cheaper and nearer more affluent customers and staff in the leafy suburbs. Investors and businesses are attracted by peripheral sites because they have good access and pleasant environments surrounding. 

Since the cost and upkeep of developments of CBDs (central business district) such as rents and land costs, it is much more attractive to develop out of town. Congestion in CBDs means that accessibility is reduced for customers and companies certainly do not want that. Progressive suburbanisation leads to urban sprawl and edge cities where the city centre may be many miles away. Many city centres are perceived as dirty, unsafe, aesthetically unpleasant and with a poor infrastructure.

Solutions ::

1. establish management and marketing teams to coordinate overall management of CBDs and run special events.

2. Pedestrianisation helps with safety issues and pollution levels in city centres therefore improving the shopping environment.

3. Constructing all-weather shopping malls in the centre that are air-conditioned and heated depending on the season. However space and rent may be an issue here.

4. Encourage specialist areas such as attractive open street markets, cultural quarters and arcades.

5. Improving public transport links to the heart of the CBD. This includes park and ride schemes, shopper buses and bus lanes. 

6. Install a CCTV system to help deter crime and improve safety levels.

7. Make the CBD safer for women by improving street lighting, registering taxi vehicles, having lots of public place seating, maintaining hedges at shoulder height and placing help points in the city with alarms and phones.

Offering other services ::

1. Encouraging a wider range of leisure facilities including cafes, bars, restaurants, music venues, cinemas and theaters to entice people.
2. Promoting street entertainment to attract people like in Covent Garden in London.
3. Developing the nightlife scene like in Leeds
4. Developing flagship attractions such as the Photographic Museum in Bradford.
5. Constructing office blocks, apartments, hotels and conference centres to attract business people.

Case Study: Birmingham

The city of Birmingham grew rapidly in size during the Indutrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th century. It's main industries were guns, jewellery, toys and metalworking. Factories were built int he city centre and along canals and railway lines for access. By 1960, housing had deteriorated and so many were replaces with blocks of flats. By 1970, the council had decided to reinvest into the city centre and redevelop it.

1960's Improvements:

The first stage of which was to improve road links. The increase in car ownership meant there was a need for structures such as ring roads to reduce congestion. In the most central ring road a shopping centre named the Bull Ring was built over several floors. A large bus station and covered market were also constructed.

1960's Issues:

Because of the vast amount of ring roads, pedestrian access became a problem quickly. Underpasses had to be built which left many women feeling unsafe and prime targets in the CBD. Shopping precincts became dingy and run down so people were attracted to out of town retail centre Merryhill in Dudley instead.

Recent redevelopment ::

The new Bull Ring was opened in 2003 over three floors and was home to 140 shops and 3000 car parking spaces. Saint Martin's Square was linked to the site and hosts music concerts and stages other events. 8000 jobs had been created and further development as planned. By the end of 2004 the complex had become so successful that it entered the top three shopping centres in the UK.

The Bird's Custard Factory in Digbeth built in 1900 was derelict by 1980. The council wanted to encourage creative industries and so in its first stage of development, 500 artists and small enterprises accommodated the factories small studios and workshops. Development continued and attracted cafes and antiques shops to the site along with the refurbishment of rooms into dance studios, art galleries and bars.

Out of town retailing

Factors pushing out-of-town shopping:

Population changes because of suburbanisation (outward movement of people to the suburbs) and counter-urbanisation (outward movement of people past the rural-urban fringe). Wealthy shoppers now live outside of the city centre and prefer not to drive into the city centre because of high traffic congestion levels and the price of parking.
High rents do not help the situation. Businesses would much prefer to rent cheaper land out of town and have more of it rather than in the town centre and be limited with space. Land out of town also offers car parking space which would also entice more customers and will often be free- a major plus!

Threats to out-of-town retailing:

Superstores are usually located on the outskirts of towns. They offer a large range of items for consumers to purchase ranging from vegetables to clothes to technology. Years ago there would have been separate shops for these items but now people prefer the convenience of the superstore which puts smaller business at risk.
Internet shopping also adds pressure onto city centres since most people have internet access and don't even have to walk out of their door to buy things nowadays. This service is on the increase, so in future will even the out-of-town centres have declined?
Leisure parks out of town that contain cinemas, laser quest arenas, bowling alleys, restaurants and free parking threaten city centres in addition.
Empty city centre shops lead to urban decline. The domino effect is that people move away who can afford to and low earning residents are left behind. Housing quality then deteriorates which further pushes people away from the centre as they look to move elsewhere.

The Trafford Centre, Manchester

Nature of the outlet ::

The Trafford Centre was opened in 1998. Land value had increased dramatically in Manchester city centre and land was cheaper to rent on the outskirts. A growth in car ownership meant that access to this area was available for many people. The area that the centre lies on was a brownfield site -previously built on land. The industrial park that the site operated as became disused and had declined so in 1995 permission was granted to redevelop the site. The site itself was built in less than three years and costed £880 million to build.

Transport ::

The centre has a catchment of 5.5 million people who live within a 45 minute drive of the centre the demographic of which are mostly suburban-semi owners and young single people. The centre boasts a 30 million visitor count per year. Its location allows good access to the M60, M6 and M62 which is ideal for access.

There is an even car parking distribution with half of the spaces available on the ground floor and half on the first floor. Automatic message boards inform people of how many spaces are left and walkways are known to be on a slight angle to psychologically motivate people into walking into the shopping centre and demotivate them from walking up and out of the outlet.

90% of visitors travel by car and park in one of the available 10,000 parking spaces or 300 coach spaces.The bus station has the capacity to see 120 buses through per hour adding to ease of access to the centre.

Design and layout :: 

There are 280 shops withing the Trafford Centre including known department stores such as Debenhams, Selfridges, John Lewis and M&S. There is a 20 screen Odeon cinema which is know to be the busiest cinema complex in the UK, a Laser Quest arena, and 18 lane bowling alley and 36 restaurants within the structure. In addition, Trafford is home to Europe's largest food court seating 1600 people.

This array of shops employs over 7,000 people and so benefits the local people greatly. The long opening hours of 10am-10pm allow people to shop whenever is convenient to them whether it be after work or during the day thus enhancing the attraction to the centre.

Issues arisen ::

As of 2010, 37% of shops in Altrincham (nearby area) are vacant.

Congestion on M60 at Barton Bridge.

Pictures sourced from ::

visitmanchester.com
airviews.info
interactiveartsenquiry.wordpress.com

Temperate deciduous woodland

Temperate Deciduous Woodland 

This biome is a high energy biome second only to the Tropical Equatorial Rainforest in productivity level. This biome is found mainly in the Northern hemisphere in countries such as the UK and North America. 

Climate ::

This biome is found in areas where summer temperatures range from 15 to 20 degrees Celsius, whilst the cool winters don't generally drop below 0 degrees Celsius. Rainfall is moderate here-around 1000-1500 mm annually and may fall throughout the year. The good summer temperatures and long days mean that the ecosystem is a very productive one.

Soil ::

Brown earth soil is the soil type found in this biome. It is usually deep, well drained and fertile and supports a range of fauna in the woodland. Decomposers in the soil break down the thick layer of leaf litter to create rich dark brown humus which earthworms and rodents then mix into the soil horizons. This mixing helps to aerate the soil and unless precipitation is significantly heavy, there is little leaching of nutrients out of the soil. The soil is therefore slightly acidic and ideal for plant and tree growth. However, this also means that soil in this biome is ideal for agricultural use and many forest have been cleared for this purpose in countries such as the UK and China meaning this biome if even more important globally.

Vegetation ::

Deciduous plants shed their leaves in Autumn in order to reduce transpiration when less moisture is available since most of the water will be frozen during the winter period. This helps protect branches from snow and ice damage also. With limited sunlight and water in the Autumn time, the leaves of the trees no longer make chlorophyll since the water supply becomes blocked off by the trees. This causes them to turn the reddish orange colour during Autumn and Winter. The trees have deep roots so to break up rocks below ground level. The break up of these rocks allows minerals to enter the soil and to be absorbed by the woodland flora above.

The canopy is composed of the dominant species such as oak and other tall deciduous trees like Elm, Beech and Sycamore. They average around 20m in height and develop large crowns of broad and thin leaves to absorb as much sunlight as possible. 

The shrub layer is composed of smaller trees like Rowan, Holly , Hawthorn and Hazel and they compete for light under the tall canopy trees. 

Beneath this is the field layer which is composed of brambles, bracken and ferns and flowering plants such as Bluebells. Wild flowers such as Bluebells flower before the leaves of the taller trees grow so they can photosynthesise before being covered by the towering canopy trees. This bodes well for attracting tourists to managed woodlands such as New Forest in Hampshire and Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire because the scenery is beautiful and these forest are open to the public. 

Sherwood attracts around 500,000 visitors per year to show off its famous Major Oaks. The largest with a trunk circumference of 10m and being over 1000 years old.  At ground level mosses and lichens colonise the layer among a thick leaf litter from fallen deciduous leaves. 

Pictures sourced from ::

bbc.co.uk

blueplanetbiomes.org

bbc.com

smh.com.au

geogonline.org.uk

Routeway colonisation

Discuss the extent to which distinctive ecologies develop along routeways.

Distinctive habitats are found along routeways because exotic and alien species can be introduced by passing cars, trains and boats depending on where the routeway is located. These ecologies are unique because transport passing by disperses non-native seeds and since some of these routeways are generally not interfered with or managed by humans, unique habitats can develop.

Along train tracks, access is usually restricted by fences and walls and so wildlife is often encouraged to live there such as badgers and foxes. Brambles that have colonised make perfect habitats for nesting, nevertheless the area may be at risk of vandalism by youths and litter thrown from trains and cars. If maintenance does take place along this routeway, then natural succession will be restricted. Since main train stations are usually found in urban areas, these routeways may be the only suitable habitat for wildlife and the safest place for them to develop and live. Any human interference could have an adverse effect on the succession of the routeway. For instance grass may be cut for aesthetics, tarmac may be laid for easy maintenance-vehicle access, pesticides may be sprayed to prevent weeds, tree branches or whole trees may be cut down for safety. All of these impact on the ecosystem and can disrupt food chains of animals which can prevent certain species from colonising.

Roads are usually edged by afforested areas which can soften noise and provide the perfect habitat for birds and small mammals such as squirrels and voles. When roads are salted in winter, halophytes such as Glasswort can colonise as a result of the salty verges. However, threats of this routeway include pollution and verge management. Grass cutting and planned planting of flowers may interrupt natural succession along this routeway. Also, some plants will react badly to pollution levels while others will thrive off the nitrogen and species growth will be promoted. 

Along canals, ecologies can develop and be home to species such as water fowl and aquatic plants such as moorhens, ducks and Yellow flag iris. The routeways can provide threats to ecology development since litter may collect in corners which would worsen water quality; in addition, many waterways are outlets to power stations and sewage plants thus worsening water quality and increasing acidity levels.

Pictures sourced from ::

letterfromengland.com

treefellers.co.uk

livingonanarrowboat.co.uk

Colonisation of wasteland

Explain the processes by which wasteland can be colonised by vegetation.

Areas of wasteland in both urban and rural areas such as brownfield sites and derelict buildings can be colonised by vegetation. The first stage of this colonisation is where pioneer species such as mosses and lichens develop. These species can live where there is a very limited moisture and nutrient supply so are always first to colonise an area. 

When the mosses dies, they decay and leave a very simple soil and humus layer. As this process repeats a protosoil is formed and allows seeds from other plants to settle and develop. Dust and more soil builds and stage two begins. This is where species such as Oxford ragwort sow their seeds and germinate in the cracks of walls, pavements and other shaded niches available on the wasteland. As moisture begins to be retained and soil levels increase, larger and much more ruderal and taller plants such as Buddleia also known as the 'butterfly bush' self-sow and begin to develop as the new dominant species.

 

As soils deepen and nutrients from decayed plants increase the soil's fertility, stage three species such as Rosebay Willowherb colonise the wasteland when taller Ragwort and Buddleia die off. This plant spreads via rhizomes which are like horizontal roots and so easily becomes dominant. 

Stage four species such as grasses then colonise as soil enrichment continues and replace the smaller meadow grasses. The are will then take on the appearance of grassland at this stage. In addition, some invasive species such as Japanese Knotweed may be introduced at this time since the nutrient and moisture retention levels are sufficient enough for the species to grow. Should the area be redeveloped in the future, this invasive alien species may cause serious problems. The land has not been previously managed by this stage and so will have enabled the Knotweed to thrive.

The final stage of colonisation is where woody shrubs and trees such as Willow, Laburnum and Bramble replace the previously dominant plants. These stage five species compete effectively and can grow roots into deeper crevices in rock. Thickets of bramble will develop and the previous wasteland will take on less of a derelict appearance. 

pictures sourced from ::

gloucestershirewildlifetrust.co.uk

ipm.ucdavis.edu

languard.co.uk

Local conservation project

Askham Bog, York

Askham Bog in York is a small scale ecological conservation area in the UK. The aim of this conversational project is to encourage local species growth, protect rare species that are local to the area and provide a sustainable community project for the people of York.

The Yorkshire Wildlife Trust runs the conservation area with the help from volunteer "Board Walkers". The requirement of volunteers means that people participating in the upkeep of the conservation plan are educated about both the native and rare species of the area. This is a positive achievement of the scheme in York and increases local knowledge which will promote the recognition of the species being protected in other areas of York.

Another success of the area is that it acts as a pollution barrier to residences that are located close to the adjacent A64 - a major road transporting thousands of cars per day. Pollution levels are lowered because the bog is peat. This means that it is very efficient of 'scrubbing' carbon out of the atmosphere and trapping it as new mosses grow over older mosses that contain the carbon. Carbon can be held for millennium this way if undisturbed thus reducing pollution levels in nearby Woodthorpe and Askham Bryan.

Previous to its existence as a conservation area, Askham Bog was uses as a municipal dumping ground in the earl 20th Century. In 1946 the bog was bought by famous sweet manufacturers Terry and Rowntree and donated to the newly formed Wildlife Trust. This makes the bog the oldest nature reserve of the Trust and after decades of active management of cutting meadows for hay and grazing Exmoor ponies, the bog's biodiversity has been successfully restored. The area now boast the largest colony of gingerbread sedge in England and some of the largest royal ferns to which is a fantastic achievement of the conservation area. The bog is kept base-rich by water draining from the Moraine and attracts rare specie of water beetle, the rare Fen Square-pot and the spectacular Emperor dragonfly.

Since peat bogs only cover 3% of earth, the preservation of one by the Wildlife Trust in York is a fantastic achievement, Because of this, the are is now an SSSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest) which labels the bog as a successful conservation programme and the Trust is now looking to invest even more into the area.

The area has been described as a "Mosaic of fen, woodland and meadow," by the Trust and boasts a collection of "Magnificent royal ferns, rare gingerbread sedge and spectacular displays of water violets." This shows that the Trust feels Askham Bog is a success and is proud of what the area has achieved since 1946.



references ::
www.wildlifetrusts.org/reserves/askham-bog-nature-reserve

pictures located ::
letterfromnorfolk.wordpress.com
ywt.org.uk

The Tropical Equatorial Rainforest

Tropical Equatorial Rainforest

Tropical equatorial rainforests (TER) lie within the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, for example the Amazon and the Gabon rainforest. They are the most productive ecosystem and rely on insolation, moisture and nutrients to develop. Several vegetation layers (stratification) characterise the TER as well as the tropical climate, latosol soil and a diverse range of animal species.

Soil ::

In an undistrubed biome, the underlying soil will have developed naturally over a long period of time and be in balance with its natural environment. It is a mature soil and its characteristics strongly reflect the climate and vegetation.

A latosol is a zonal soil type associated with the TER. Ferralitisation may occur here which is a process by which bedrock is broken down into clay minerals by chemical weathering. 

The top of the latosol shows a thick humus layer made up of decaying leaves and animals. Nutrients for vegetation come from here thus vegetation has shallow roots. As break down continues a humus layer is created. Many active biota can be found here such as ants and worms.

Eluviation or leaching is common due to the high amount of rainfall and percolation. Mainly the leaching is of silica and dissolved salts. There is a build up of iron and aluminium oxides thus turning the soil red in colour. As silica becomes left behind a yellow tone will be given tot he soil.

Soil begins to get more clay-like further down the horizons. The parent material lies at the bottom where ferralitisation occurs.

Vegetation ::

The emergent layer is the top layer with trees around 30-40m high such as Mahogany and Ebony. The trunks are thin to allow for movement in harsh winds. Evaporation is rapid here since these trees have the most contact with the sun, to cope with this, the trees here have non-drip tip leaves so to retain water instead of lose it. There is nearly continuous cover here and since there is a year round growing season, an evergreen appearance is given to the rainforest. 

The canopy layer is the most productive and absorbs 25% of the available energy. There is a thin nutrient layer in rainforest soil and so deep roots are not required. Therefore buttress roots help to stabilise the tall and slender trees. The trees have huge crowns so to absorb as much sunlight as possible via a larger surface area. Leaves can often become saturated here so leaves have developed drip tip leaves to shed water quickly and efficiently.

The under canopy is where less substantial trees are found that are taller than the shrub layer and are far more tolerant of the shade than those above them. The vegetation here only gets a glimpse of sun and often has interlocking spindly branches that allow lightweight animals to travel along them,. The growth of under storey trees is restricted to several metres below the base of the canopy and so a prominent gap can be seen. 

The shrub layer is made up of woody plants and young trees. The lower layers receive around 10% of the available energy and 1% sunlight thus there is little shrub and forest floor vegetation. However ferns and Pygmy trees may be present. There is a layer of rotting leaves and dead animals called litter. This decomposes quickly (within 6 weeks) due to the humidity. Fungi and decomposers therefore thrive here and create a humus layer that is rich in nutrients. Down here the buttress roots themselves can be seen.

Climate ::

The rainforest has a low dijurnal temperature range. The average temperature being 28 degrees celcius daily falling to around 22 degrees celcius at night. Overlying clouds restrict temperatures to around 32 degrees celcious. Rain falls all year round at the equator becuase of the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) which dominates the conditions. The ITCZ consists of the NE and SE trade winds which meet and force winds to be uplifted at the equator. Evapotranspiration is rapid die to humid conditions and low pressure above the rainforest. This allows air to be uplifted rapidly and large cumulonimbus clouds form from the condensation. Cumulonimbus clouds are the biggest rain clouds and allow for heavy rainfall.

Vegetation and Animal adaptations ::

A tropical equatorial rainforest, such as the Amazon in Brazil, is home to more than 80% of the world’s population of insects as well as hundreds of species of fauna. Some examples include the Crab spider, Orangutan, Gliding Leaf frog and the Colugo. Their moist and humid climates also contain 750 different species of vegetation per hectare; some examples of flora include pitcher plants, fig trees and orchids.

Each of the above examples has adapted amazingly to life in the jungle. 

Crab spiders and pitcher plants have a symbiotic relationship, in which the crab spider feeds off the

pitcher plant’s own prey and still leaves enough nutrients for the plant itself. The pitcher plant has acclimatised to live within infertile soil conditions by arranging a snare. Its flower has a sticky surface to catch passing insects that are attracted to its brightly coloured petals.  The enzymes within the water-filled pitcher digest trapped insects. The crab spider, having adapted the ability to enter and leave the pitcher via its silk thread, can feed off the dying insects also without taking the whole of the available nutrients provided.

Orchids are epiphytes and grow off the surrounding trees of the rainforest. They have a non-parasitic relationship with their host and intend only to survive with assistance from their host. When the epiphytes are higher up, there is more energy available from the sun and they are more likely to flourish compared to if they were on the forest floor.

Some fungi have a parasitic relationship with their host, for example cordyceps. These deadly fungi grow within a host insect, maybe an ant or and prevent a species from becoming too dominant. They drug the insect from within and control their brain. With an ant, the cordycep forces it to climb high where it shall die attached to a vine of a tree. Spores then grow out of the corpse’s head which help to spread the cordyceps' ability to infect other insects.

Fig trees fruit all year round within the tropical rainforest; they are feeding ground for many species of monkey such as the spider monkey and gibbon. They often have buttress roots to stabilise them since the soil in a rainforest is often lacking sufficient nutrients and so buttress roots help to extend the area over which a tree can absorb nutrients from. 

Pictures sourced from ::

buzzle.com

latosols-rendzinas.wikispaces.com

warrenphotographic.co.uk

carnivorous--plants.com

gorgeouswall.com

tnhsprgteam.blogspot.co.uk

Case Study :: Montserrat

Chances Peak, Montserrat

The volcanic island of Monserrat is located in the Caribbean and is part of a group of islands known as the Lesser Antilles. The country is classed as an LIC (low-income country) with a GDP per capita of $3,400 compared to the UK's GDP per capita of $38,920. The plate boundary where it is situated is known as a destructive plate boundary. This means that two tectonic plates are colliding and that one is sub-ducting under the other. The melting of this sub-ducting plate causes magma to reach the surface in the form of a volcano. At this particular boundary the Atlantic plate is sub-ducting under the Caribbean plate. The volcano here is classified as a composite volcano and so has been built up in layers of cooled ash and magma from previous eruptions. We know that there had not been an eruption in Montserrat for over 500 years and so pressures and tension would have built up. These pressures were released firstly in July 1995. The volcano then catastrophically erupted in April 1997 and the island was at risk of pyroclastic flows and large quantities of ash. 

Montserrat is only 16km long and 10km wide. It was previously home to 12,000 inhabitants, now only 5,000 remain. Many of the young residents chose to stay away when evacuated in April 1996 and this lead to a top heavy population in Montserrat. Many inhabitants moved to parts of America, Antigua and the UK as Montserrat is a British colony. The entire population was forced to move out of the then capital Plymouth as this area was located South-West of the volcano - a prime target for pyroclastic flows. Indeed the south of Montserrat was the worst affected after 1997 and so this preparation method proved successful. 

When the dome of Chances Peak collapsed, millions of cubic metres of ash, tephra and gases ran down the sides of the Soufriere Hills (hills where the volcano was situated). The south of the Island was covered (in some areas of up to 10m) in ash, smothering precious farmland and destroying peoples livelihoods. 

Previous eruptions had left fertile soil behind for the people of Montserrat to farm. An impact of the 1997 eruption was the loss of this farmland thus questioning what would families who remained there do without this land. Since the last eruption was centuries ago, nobody who had experienced the power of the volcano then was alive to help locals deal with the situation. Many thought the volcano was extinct because of the lack of activity and so little attention had been paid to this small island.

In the 500 years since the last eruption the island had been colonised by beautiful woodland and tropical vegetation, making for an attractive site for the rich and famous. Luxurious villas and hotels were home to musicians such as Paul McCartney and The Rolling Stones. Now however, similar villas can be purchased to the North of the island at around a third of their previous price. 

Other impacts of the 1997 eruption included the immediate death of 19 people who were killed in fires as a result of heated pyroclastic flows. There were also a number of burn and inhalation injuries reported and two thirds of houses were covered by ash or destroyed by rock fall. Infrastructure was destroyed along with the capital of Plymouth. The airport and port in Plymouth were closed and valleys became blocked with ash.

The Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) was established in 1995 after it was decided that the volcano was not extinct as previously thought. Scientists here are from the British Geological Survey and the University of the West Indes. This seismic research unit has responsibility for all seismic and volcanic activity in English-speaking eastern Caribbean countries. Ground movements due to magma moving beneath the ground are detected using laser beams and GPS, local earthquakes and dome collapses in addition. Topography of the volcano is frequently re-drawn in order to figure out rate of growth of the volcano. Gas samples are also taken from hot springs surrounding the area in also via Correlation Spectrometers. This centre saved thousands of lives as it successfully predicted the large eruption of 1997. 

Responses to the 1997 eruption included the set up of temporary schools and shelters by the Red Cross. Medical support and food were provided by this NGO and £17m was given in aid from the UK government to pay for water purification systems and building construction. Troops from the British navy and USA came to assist the evacuation process and extra warning systems were set up to contact inhabitants of the volcano's state. 

In the long term, a redevelopment programme to help with the rebuilding of houses, schools, medical centres, infrastructure and agriculture was funded with help from the UK. Plymouth remains an exclusion zone and approximately 5500 people currently live on the island. The island is trying to establish a capital at Little Bay in the North of the island.

Montserrat August 2012 :: useful to see what the island is like in the Plymouth area

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FVPo6EM3FKU




Pictures located from ::
www.bgs.ac.uk
www.montserratvolcano.org
www.emeraldtrendsetters.org